From the Long Turkish War (1593-1606) to the Liberation of Vienna (1683)
Edited by Alessandro Boccolini and Ovidiu Cristea
Marian Coman
Institute of History “N. Iorga”, Romanian Academy of Bucharest/University of Bucharest (Romania)
Framing conflict. Maps of the Ottoman-habsburg Long War
ABSTRACT: This article investigates how Western European mapmakers addressed the cartographic challenge of mapping the theatre of the Ottoman-Habsburg Long War. Although most simply sought to circumvent this spatial conundrum, some mapmakers directly confronted it, seeking a viable solution. My contention is that, of the three cartographic genres involved in the process, the most innovative was the news map. The article has a twofold structure. In the first part, I identify the main centres of cartographic production related to the Long War (such as Augsburg, Frankfurt, Köln, and Nuremberg) and briefly discuss the relationship between printed and manuscript maps. In the second part, I examine the spatial frames used by different cartographic genres, focusing on a series of news maps and propaganda maps produced between 1593 and 1595. My main argument is that the mapping of the Long War was a key moment in the making of a new cartographic genre, that of the theatre of war.
KEYWORDS: Ottoman-Habsburg Long War; Cartography; Theatre of war; News printing; Propaganda.
Livia Magina
Museum of the Highland Banat. Reșița (ROMANIA)
ABSTRACT: The Long Turkish war (1593-1606) was a devastating one for the western frontier of the Principality of Transylvania, especially for the small fortresses. The aftermath of this long conflict at the western border of Principality was really disruptive: the fortresses were in bad shape; their villages were emptied of inhabitants and a lot of fugitives take shelter near the fortifications. When the battles ended, a period of calm followed for about a decade after the peace of Zsitvatorok (1606). The Principality of Transylvania retained some territories won in the conflict, located in the Mures valley around Lipova. In the face of pressure from the Crescent, the prince Gabriel Bethlen ceded Lipova and the surrounding area to the Ottomans. Transylvania’s involvement in the Thirty Years’ War changed the foreign policy of the principality, as the frontier with the Ottomans was relatively calm, marked only by minor clashes. In spite of a relatively well-structured defensive system, in the face of Ottoman pressure, and in order to be appointed prince, Akos Barcsay ceded Caransebeș, Lugoj and Ineu to the Turks in 1658, a major change that drastically altered the frontier in favour of the Ottomans. The occupation of Oradea in 1660 marked the collapse of the entire Transylvanian defensive system on the frontier with the Ottomans.
KEYWORDS: Transylvania; 17th century; Frontier; Ottomans; Fortifications.
Adrian Magina
West University, Timișoara (ROMANIA)
ABSTRACT: In the Long War between Habsburgs and Ottomans (1593-1606), the Principality of Transylvania was also involved. In clashes between Transylvanians and Turks, the most important theatre of operations was the territory of present-day Banat. Conquered by the Ottomans following the military campaign of 1552, the lowland area of Banat (the Mureș valley, the area around Timișoara) remained a territory from which the Crescent troops could put pressure on the principality of Transylvania. This is why, during the Long War, the Christians constantly tried to recover these territories from the Ottomans. Although they had a number of notable successes (recapturing Lipova, for example), the Transylvanians failed twice in their attempt to conquer the centre of the eyalet, the town of Timișoara. The peace concluded in 1606 confirmed the new territorial configuration of the Ottoman-Transylvanian frontier, but the situation was temporary; all the territories conquered by the Christians during the Long War being recovered by the Ottomans in the following decades.
KEYWORDS: Long Turkish War; Banat; Frontier; Transylvania; Ottomans.
Ovidiu Cristea
Institute of History “N. Iorga”. Romanian Academy of Bucharest (ROMANIA)
“Notabili successe nel viaggio dell’Ungheria”: a testimony about the Ottoman campaign of 1596
ABSTRACT: The Ottoman victory at Mezőkeresztes, was reflected in a multitude of letters, reports, and prints from the period. Among the testimonies of participants in the events is that of Edward Barton, England’s ambassador to Constantinople. Along with the report sent from Belgrade to his superior, Sir Robert Cecil, Barton also directed other letters to friends and collaborators about the unfolding events. An Italian version of one of his reports contains a complete description of the campaign from the moment of departure from Istanbul until the sultan’s return. Even if the information contained in the document does not significantly change the perspective on the main events and the outcome of the expedition, the way in which the information is structured, as well as the things that are left unsaid or quickly dismissed, tell us something not only about the author, but also about the stakes involved and the problems posed by “travel accounts”.
KEYWORDS: Edward Barton; Battle of Mezőkeresztes; Long Turkish War; Mehmed III; Eger.
Oana-Andreia Sâmbrian
Institute of Social Science and Humanities, Romanian Academy of Craiova (ROMANIA)
ABSTRACT: The article focuses on the relevance of the role played by Girolamo Frachetta in the Long Turkish War against the Ottoman Empire in the last decade of the 16th century. His role has a twofold articulation: on the one hand, the importance of his 1613 work dedicated to King Philip III of Spain, Il seminario dei governi di stato et di guerra di Girolamo Frachetta da Rovigo nel quale sotto cento diece capi si comprende intorno a otto mila massime o proposizioni universali e regole o insegnamenti di stato e di guerra, where he practically sets the base of how to perform mass manipulation by the use of news and avvisi, and on the other, the publication of his Orazioni where he exhorts European princes to pursue the war against the Turks. A special attention is dedicated to the analysis of the Orazioni addressed to the Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory.
KEYWORDS: Long Turkish War; Girolamo Frachetta; Sigismund Báthory; Transylvania; News.
Dorel Țuinea
Institute of History “N. Iorga”, Romanian Academy of Bucharest (ROMANIA)
The Habsburgs and the Transylvanian Diets convened by Michael the Brave
ABSTRACT: In his capacity as Prince of Transylvania, Michael the Brave summoned the Transylvanian Diet on four occasions, the final convocation ultimately failing to materialize. The first three assemblies were duly constituted and formally affirmed his accession to the princely dignity. As the Diet functioned as the central deliberative and legislative body of the principality, representatives of the Habsburg Monarchy repeatedly sought either to forestall its convocation or to secure their participation in its proceedings. Michael the Brave, however, systematically precluded imperial agents from attending the sessions, notwithstanding the fact that his tenure in Transylvania was marked by sustained diplomatic engagement−both official and informal−with the Habsburg court.
KEYWORDS: Michael the Brave; Diet of Transylvania; Habsburg agents; Papal nuncio; Princely prerogative.
Florina Ciure
“Ţării Crişurilor” Museum Oradea (ROMANIA)
The Transylvanian Contribution to the Thirty Years’ War in 17th-Century Venetian Historiography
ABSTRACT: The conflict between Catholics and Protestants in the Holy Roman Empire, known as the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648), offered the Transylvanian prince Gabriel Bethlen, under the pretext of supporting the Czech Protestant rebels (1619-1622), the opportunity to implement his ambitious and expansive foreign policy against the Habsburgs. The Principality of Transylvania’s involvement in the Thirty Years’ War during the reign of George Rákóczy I on the side of the Franco-Swedish coalition in February 1644, preceded by negotiations with the allies concluded in November 1642, culminated in the separate peace between George Rákóczy I and Ferdinand III of Habsburg, concluded in Linz on September 16, 1645. Transylvania’s participation in the Thirty Years’ War is reflected in books published in Venice, such as Delle istorie memorabili by Al. Zilioli (1642), Delle Historie memorabili de’ nostri tempi by M. Bisaccioni (1653), Dell’Historie Universali d’Europa, vol. I-II, by G. Brusoni (1657), Ristretto dell’historie del mondo, the first part by H. Torsellini, and the second by B. Oldoini (1663), as well as in the work of B. Nani, Historia della Republica Veneta (1676), or in Idea Generale del Regno D’Ungheria by C. Freschot (1684).
KEYWORDS: Transylvania; Thirty Years’ War; Gabriel Bethlen; George Rákóczy I; Venetian Historiography.
Paweł Duda
University of Slesia in Katowice (POLAND)
The Battle of Khotyn in 1621 in the accounts of papal diplomats
ABSTRACT: The Polish-Ottoman confrontation that took place in 1621 at the walls of the fortress in Khotyn, which is considered by some historians as an episode of the Thirty Years’ War, led to an understandable interest throughout Europe, including Rome. Papal diplomats staying in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth closely followed reports from the south of the country and then reported the course of the conflict to the Roman dicasteries. For the purposes of this publication, it has been possible to select reports by papal diplomats, previously unused in historiography, which contain references to the Battle of Khotyn. The aim of this publication is to analyse the aforementioned correspondence, verify the information it contains, and, in the longer term, introduce previously unknown manuscript material into research on both war and miliary history.
KEYWORDS: Turkish-Polish Relations; Khotyn campaign; Francesco Diotallevi; Holy See’s Diplomacy; War reports.
Cristina Codarcea
Institute for South-East European Studies/ Romanian Academy of Bucharest (ROMANIA)
ABSTRACT: The article will briefly recompose the position of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith about the Catholic missions it coordinates and controls in the Balkan Peninsula, as well as about the conflicts between Christian states and the Ottoman Empire that were taking place at that time and which shaped what has been called the “long conflict” (1593-1606) and the siege of Vienna (1683). Also, it will analyse how the Catholic enclaves in the Balkans in the 17th century, more specifically the communities located in what is now Bulgaria, experienced the reality of the confrontation between the Christian powers and the Ottoman Empire, and how the phrase “anti-Ottoman struggle” that has marked the writings of generations of historians in South-Eastern Europe can be confirmed.
KEYWORDS: Local Catholicism; Bulgaria; Anti-Ottoman resistance; XVII Century; Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
Susanna Piselli
University of Rome “La Sapienza” (ITALY)
The Battle of Kothyn (1673): A Road to the Throne
ABSTRACT: The article analyses the Holy See’s involvement in the Rzeczpospolita crisis from 1672 to 1674, following the Ottoman offensive that resulted in the fall of Kamieniec Podolski and the ensuing Peace of Buczacz, which jeopardised Poland’s stability. Viewed by Rome as the Antemurale Christianitatis, Poland became a focal point for papal intervention aimed at bolstering anti-Turkish resistance and mitigating internal strife. Utilising correspondence from nuncios Angelo Maria Ranuzzi and Francesco Buonvisi in the Vatican Apostolic Archives, as well as Carlo Cartari’s Diary, the study explores the spiritual, financial, and diplomatic initiatives of Pope Clement X. Key actions included efforts to establish a Christian league, outreach to Muscovy, financial support to Warsaw, and mediation by the nunciate to prevent civil war. The rejection of the Peace of Buczacz and subsequent army reorganisation culminated in the victory at Khotyn in 1673, while Roman diplomatic efforts during the interregnum significantly aided in the election of Jan Sobieski as king in 1674.
KEYWORDS: Carlo Cartari’s Diary; Buczacz; Clement X; Polish nuntiatures; Khotyn.
Alessandro Boccolini
University of Tuscia (ITALY)
From Żurawno to Grodno: Jan III Sobieski and the Ottoman Threat
ABSTRACT: The article examines the evolution of Jan III Sobieski’s foreign policy from the Truce of Żurawno (1676) to the Diet of Grodno (1679–1680), contextualising it within the geopolitical tensions of Central and Eastern Europe and the diplomatic initiatives of Pope Innocent XI. It argues that Sobieski’s initial accommodation with the Ottoman Empire, often viewed as a departure from Poland’s traditional role as “Christianity’s bulwark”, was driven by pragmatic political considerations and influenced by French strategy and the Jaworów agreements. Drawing on correspondence held in the Vatican Archives, the study highlights the Holy See’s efforts to forge a unified Christian front against Ottoman expansion while navigating Franco-Imperial rivalry and Muscovy’s complex stance. It traces the shift in Polish policy from alignment with France to rapprochement with the Habsburg Empire, culminating in the resolutions of the Grodno Diet and the subsequent 1683 alliance. The conclusions illustrate how this alliance was shaped not only by long-term diplomatic strategies but also by the pressing context of the imminent Ottoman threat to Vienna, which necessitated urgent collective action.
KEYWORDS: Jan III Sobieski; Ottoman Empire; Papal diplomacy; Polish–Habsburg relations.
Gaetano Platania
National Institute of Roman Studies (ITALY)
ABSTRACT: The article reinterprets the liberation of Vienna in 1683 by examining the interconnected political, diplomatic, and military actions of Jan III Sobieski, Emperor Leopold I, and Pope Innocent XI. Instead of presenting separate biographies, it provides an integrated analysis based on published and unpublished archival sources, particularly from Roman archives. The study emphasises the Holy See’s crucial mediating role in bridging significant political divisions among Christian powers and in facilitating a defensive alliance against the Ottoman Empire. It highlights papal diplomacy, financial support, and the strategic shift in Polish foreign policy that resulted in the Polish–Imperial alliance of 1683. Additionally, the article evaluates the limitations of earlier plans for a broader anti-Ottoman coalition, which transformed into an urgent response to Kara Mustafa’s advancing forces. Ultimately, the relief of Vienna is portrayed as a pivotal event shaped by military endeavours, intricate diplomatic negotiations, and papal coordination, significantly altering the power dynamics in Central and Eastern Europe.
KEYWORDS: Siege of Vienna (1683); Jan III Sobieski; Innocent XI; Papal diplomacy; Holy League.
VARIA SECTION
Matteo Sanfilippo
University of Tuscia (ITALY)
ABSTRACT: The Over the past two decades, migration studies have considered not only arrivals and departures within or from a nation, but also the circularity of demographic exchanges between two or more countries. Over time, and sometimes even almost simultaneously, two regions can develop relationships that involve reciprocal migratory flows. Katalin Prajda, a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Vienna, has studied the exchanges between Italy and Hungary during the two centuries between the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of the modern era.
KEYWORDS: Italy; Florence; Hungary; Renaissance; Filippo Scolari; Mercantile networks; migrations.